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Transfer (of learning) research can be loosely framed as the study of the dependency of human conduct on prior experience. The notion was originally introduced as transfer of practice by Edward Thorndike and Robert S. Woodworth (1901)^[1]. They explored how individuals would transfer learning in one context to another context that shared similar characteristics. Their theory implied that transfer of learning depends on the proportion to which the learning task and the transfer task are identical, also known as 'identical elements'. Transfer research has since attracted much attention in numerous domains, producing a wealth of empirical findings and theoretical interpretations. However, there remains considerable controversy about how transfer of learning should be conceptualized and explained, what its relation is to learning, or whether it exists at all (e.g., Detterman, 1993; Helfenstein, 2005 ^[2]).

Transfer of learning should not be confused with knowledge transfer, as the former concerns intra-individual, constructivist perspective, and the latter, an inter-individual or inter-organizational perspective.

Most discussions of transfer to date can be developed from a common operational definition, describing it as the process and the effective extent to which past experiences (also referred to as transfer source) affect learning and performance in a present novel situation (transfer target) (Ellis, 1965; Woodworth, 1938). This, however, is usually also where the general consensus between various research approaches ends.

Indeed, there is a wide variety of viewpoints taken on transfer; and therefore research should be reviewed from many different perspectives. These perspectives relate to:

• a taxonomical approach to transfer research that usually intends to categorize transfer into different types;
• an application domain-driven approach by focusing on developments and contributions of different disciplines that have traditionally been interested in transfer;
• the examinination of the psychological scope of transfer models with respect to the psychological functions or faculties that are being regarded; and
• a concept-driven evaluation, which reveals underlying relationships and differences between theoretical and empirical traditions.

• Positive transfer - when learning in one context enhances a related performance in another context.

• Negative transfer - when learning in one context undermines a related performance in another context.
• Forward reaching transfer (a form of "high road" transfer) - one learns something and abstracts it in preparation for application elsewhere.

• Backward reaching transfer (a form of "high road" transfer) - one finds oneself in a problem situation, abstracts key characteristics from the situation, and reaches backward into one's experience for matches.